Law School: A Comprehensive Guide to International Law

International law is the body of rules governing relations between sovereign states and other global actors. It deals with treaties, customs, and principles that states (and sometimes individuals) consider binding (www.thelawstudies.com) (www.thelawstudies.com). Unlike domestic law, which is passed by a legislature and enforced by national courts, international law is consensual in nature. The sources of international law include treaties, customary practices, and broad principles recognized by civilized nations (www.thelawstudies.com). As one authority explains, international law is “the body of customary and treaty rules … legally binding by civilized states in their intercourse with each other” (www.thelawstudies.com). This guide will explain the core concepts of international law while also reviewing key contract law principles typically covered in a first-year contracts course.

International law is often divided into Public and Private branches. Public international law covers relations between states and organizations (e.g. the United Nations, World Trade Organization) and includes areas like treaties, human rights, and the laws of war. Private international law (conflict of laws) deals with cross-border private disputes (such as international contracts, family law, or succession). Throughout this guide we will touch on both, but place special emphasis on areas where international settings intersect with contract law (for example, cross-border sales under the CISG).

The remainder of this guide is organized by topic. Each section provides definitions, examples, and practical context. Where relevant, we include case scenarios and actionable advice for law students (e.g. study tips, drafting suggestions, and exam strategies). The goal is to offer a high-quality, detailed resource on international and contract law topics that first-year law students need to know.

What Is International Law?

International law can be concisely defined as “a body of laws governing the legal relations between nations and international organizations” (www.thelawstudies.com). It covers both the obligations nation-states have toward each other and the rules governing how states interact with individuals and companies. For example, countries enter treaties with one another, and those treaties (once ratified) become binding commitments under international law. Customary international practices (e.g. the principle of sovereign equality, diplomatic immunity norms) also bind states if they have become widely accepted as law (www.thelawstudies.com).

Key characteristics of international law include:

Consensus-based creation: There is no global legislature. Instead, rules emerge through treaties (written agreements between states) and customary practice (consistent state behavior in the belief of legal obligation) (www.thelawstudies.com).
Subjects of international law: Primarily sovereign states, but also international organizations (like the UN or World Bank) and, increasingly, individuals and multinational corporations can be subjects of certain international obligations (e.g. human rights law, international criminal law).
Enforcement mechanisms: International law often relies on voluntary compliance, diplomatic pressure, and reciprocal sanctions. Tribunals like the International Court of Justice (ICJ) and arbitration panels resolve disputes, but enforcement is limited compared to domestic courts.

International law is dynamic and wide-ranging. It includes areas such as trade law (WTO agreements), human rights treaties (like the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights), environmental treaties (Paris Climate Agreement), humanitarian law (Geneva Conventions), and more. In modern practice, international law largely coexists with domestic (municipal) law. For example, most countries incorporate treaties into their domestic legal system by statutes, giving international treaties effect in national courts. Understanding these interactions is essential for any law student.

Sources of International Law

Unlike domestic legal systems (with constitutions or legislatures), international law derives from several loosely ranked sources. The Statute of the International Court of Justice (ICJ) – which is authoritative for public international law – lists the main sources in Article 38. The most important sources can be summarized as:

Treaties (International Agreements): Written pacts between two or more states. For example, the United Nations Charter (1945) or the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (1969). A state that ratifies a treaty is legally bound by its terms. Treaties may also establish international organizations or customs.
Customary International Law: Practices that states regularly follow out of a sense of legal obligation (opinio juris). For instance, maritime zones (territorial seas) evolved into custom before codification. Customary rules bind all states, even if they have not signed a particular treaty, once the practice is widespread and accepted (www.thelawstudies.com).
General Principles of Law: Fundamental principles common to major legal systems (like good faith, equity, or due process) may be applied by international courts when treaties or customs don’t cover a situation.
Judicial Decisions and Teachings: ICJ judgments, arbitral awards, and learned writings (scholarly works) are not primary sources but can help interpret the above and fill gaps. For example, while UN General Assembly resolutions are usually not binding law, consistent resolutions might reflect emerging norms.

In practice, treaties and custom are paramount (www.thelawstudies.com). For example, Article 38 of the ICJ Statute explicitly recognizes “international conventions” (treaties) and “international custom” as the principal sources. A tract on international law notes, “…international customs and treaties are generally considered to be the most important sources of international law” (www.thelawstudies.com). Familiarize yourself with major treaties relevant to your studies (e.g., the Geneva Conventions for humanitarian law, the UNCLOS for maritime law) and understand where custom still plays a role.

Practical Example: To illustrate, imagine two countries negotiate climate policy. Their treaty may set emission targets. If one country later consistently exceeds those targets but is widely expected to reduce emissions anyway, that repeated behavior might eventually become customary law influencing others. Meanwhile, any conflict about the treaty terms could go to an international tribunal or be resolved through diplomatic channels.

Public vs. Private International Law

A useful distinction is Public International Law vs Private International Law:

Public International Law: Governs relationships between sovereigns and includes law of treaties, international organizations, war and peace, human rights, etc. It concerns how states act collectively. Example subjects: use of force, UN Security Council resolutions, ICJ jurisdiction.
Private International Law (Conflict of Laws): Deals with cross-border disputes between private parties. It determines which jurisdiction’s laws apply, which court has authority, and how foreign judgments are enforced. This is highly relevant to contracts between parties in different countries. For instance, if a U.S. company sues a German company under a sales contract, private intl law rules of each country decide if U.S. courts have jurisdiction and which law (U.S. or German) applies.

Key Note: Private international law is often not called “international law” in first-year courses. Instead, it’s classified under “Conflict of Laws” or “Choice of Law.” However, when studying contracts, you may encounter issues like choice-of-law clauses, jurisdiction clauses, and the New York Convention (which allows enforcement of foreign arbitral awards worldwide).

Actionable Advice: Always check if a cross-border contract includes a governing law clause (e.g., “This Agreement shall be governed by the laws of Country X”) and a dispute forum (court vs. arbitration). If not, conflict-of-laws rules will determine applicable law, which can vary (e.g., lex loci contractus, closest connection test). Knowing conflict-of-laws basics helps international contracts.

Subjects of International Law

States: The principal actors under international law. A state has sovereignty (supreme authority) over its territory and is free to enter treaties, declare war, and establish embassies. States are generally seen as equal under international law, regardless of size or power. A recognized government embodies the state’s will. Foreign policy decisions, such as treaty ratification or recognition of governments, all involve international-legal considerations.

International Organizations: Bodies like the United Nations, NATO, or the WTO are also subjects of international law with specific treaty-based powers. For example, the UN Security Council can pass resolutions binding member states under Chapter VII of the UN Charter. Though IOs cannot pass taxes, they can establish regulations, treaties, and adjudicative bodies (e.g. WTO Panels). When working on an international law problem, check if an organization has relevant authority (e.g. the ICC prosecuting crimes, or the UN sending peacekeepers).

Individuals and Corporations: Traditionally, individuals had no standing under international law except through their state. However, post-World War II developments changed this. Individuals can now have rights (e.g. human rights treaties allow individuals to claim violations, the ICC can prosecute individuals for war crimes). Corporations may have treaty-based protections (for example, investment treaties allow corporations to sue states for expropriation at the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID)).

Example: Under international law, a country cannot throw foreign civilians into prison arbitrarily due to international human rights treaties. If it does, individuals can invoke those treaties (through courts or UN bodies, depending on the treaty). Similarly, a multinational company could invoke a bilateral investment treaty when one country nationalizes its factory.

Practical Tip: When analyzing an international issue, always identify the “players” – are they multiple countries, an international organization, a private firm, or individuals? Their status determines what law applies (e.g. treaties vs. domestic law) and which forums have jurisdiction.

Key Principles and Concepts

International law is built on a few foundational principles. Understanding these helps frame any discussion:

Sovereignty and Non-interference: States have authority over their internal affairs. Other states should not intervene in domestic matters unless international law permits (e.g. human rights intervention under UN mandate is contested).
Pacta Sunt Servanda (“agreements must be kept”): A fundamental rule from the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (1969). Every treaty in force is binding on the parties and must be performed in good faith. This is akin to “contracts must be honored” at the international level.
Jus Cogens: Peremptory norms from which no derogation is allowed (e.g. prohibition on genocide, slavery). Even treaties cannot override jus cogens.
Universal Jurisdiction: Some crimes (e.g. piracy, genocide, crimes against humanity) allow any nation to prosecute, regardless of where they occurred or the nationality of the perpetrators/victims.
State Responsibility: When a state breaches an international obligation (say, violates another state’s borders), it can incur responsibility and may owe reparations. This is akin to a form of tort liability at the international level.

Practical Example: The principle of pacta sunt servanda means if Country A and Country B sign an arms control treaty, both must abide by it. If one country later claims there’s coercion or illegal process (vitiating factors), it might try to exit the treaty, but international law requires clear grounds for withdrawal or termination of a treaty.

International Treaties and the Law of Treaties

Treaties (often called conventions or agreements) are central to international law. A treaty is essentially a contract between countries. Key points:

Formation: Under the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (1969), treaties are concluded by consent of states (signature followed by ratification, unless immediate entry into force). When a treaty is signed internationally, it’s usually not binding until each state follows its internal ratification process.
Entry into force: Many treaties specify conditions (e.g. ratification by a certain number of states). After entry, each state must implement the treaty (often through legislation) to give it domestic effect.
Interpretation: Article 31 of the Vienna Convention sets the general rule of interpreting treaties in “good faith” by ordinary meaning, context, and treaty object (academic.oup.com). Courts (like the ICJ) and national judiciaries often rely on this when disputes arise over ambiguous treaty language.
Termination and Exit: A treaty may have explicit exit clauses. Otherwise, under the Vienna Convention, fundamental breach or impossibility can allow a party to terminate a treaty. For example, the Paris Agreement allows parties to withdraw after certain time frames.
Example: If two states sign a trade treaty in 2020, a student should know that the treaty is internationally binding once both ratify it. If State A later changes governments and wants out, it must follow whatever the treaty’s exit rules are (say, 6 months’ notice). Until then, its obligations continue.

Practical Advice: For exam or paper, know basic treaty concepts (ratification, reservations, entry into force) and cite the Vienna Convention when relevant. For example, you might note: “Under Article 18 of the Vienna Convention, a state must refrain from acts that defeat a treaty’s object and purpose even before formal entry into force.”

International Courts and Dispute Settlement

Unlike domestic courts, there is no single “world court” with compulsory jurisdiction over all matters. Key forums include:

International Court of Justice (ICJ): The principal judicial organ of the UN. Only states can be parties. It decides cases (with parties’ consent) on legal disputes submitted (e.g. boundary disputes, treaty interpretation) and gives advisory opinions (e.g. request by the UN General Assembly). The ICJ applies international law sources (treaties, custom, etc.) and its judgments are binding between the parties in that case. Example: Nicaragua v. United States (1986) on military intervention.
International Criminal Court (ICC): Prosecutes individuals (not states) for genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. Its jurisdiction arises from the Rome Statute (a treaty); not all countries have joined (the US, Russia withdrew).
World Trade Organization (WTO) Panels/Appellate Body: For international trade law disputes under WTO agreements, member states have access to a dispute resolution process.
International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID): Administers arbitrations between foreign investors and host states under investment treaties. This is key for corporations claiming protections against expropriation.
Regional Courts: E.g., the European Court of Human Rights (enforces the European Convention on Human Rights among Council of Europe members) or tribunals under NAFTA/USMCA, etc.

Additionally, international arbitration is very common in commercial disputes. Unlike domestic litigation, international arbitration awards are widely enforceable under the 1958 New York Convention. This is crucial for contract enforcement: if a contract designates arbitration under the New York Convention, a party can get an arbitral award in its favor and the losing party’s state should enforce it.

Actionable Advice: If your contracts class covers international business, learn about arbitration clauses. Also, pay attention to key cases like Lotus (France v. Turkey) or Barcelona Traction for general international law principles (though these are more advanced, some courses mention them briefly).

Private International Law (Choice of Law and Forum)

When students ask “which law governs this contract?”, they’re dealing with private international law (not to be confused with public international law). For example, Company X in Country A and Company Y in Country B sign a contract. Which country’s contract law applies if a dispute arises? How do we know where to sue?

Choice of Law: Many international contracts include a clause specifying which nation’s law applies. This is usually upheld. If no clause, courts use conflict-of-laws rules: e.g., the law of the place of contracting, place of performance, or where the parties are domiciled.
Jurisdiction: A contract might also specify venue (court or arbitration). Without it, a court will decide if it has jurisdiction based on treaties and national rules. For instance, EU law has rules on jurisdiction between member states; outside the EU, it depends on local law.
Enforcement of Judgments: Once you have a judgment, enforcement in another country often requires treaties (e.g. Hague Convention on Recognition of Foreign Judgments) or bilateral agreements. Otherwise, the winner must re-try in the losing party’s country as a new lawsuit.

Example: Two companies (one in Tokyo, one in London) sign a sales contract with no forum clause. If the Tokyo company sues in Japan, a Japanese court might have jurisdiction (since one party is there). But the London party could contest jurisdiction and ask the court to apply English law. If Japan’s conflict rules say “apply the law of the seller’s country”, it might apply English law. If the Tokyo company gets a Japanese court order, enforcing it in the UK would require the UK courts to recognize it (potentially under the Hague Convention on Judgments or principles of comity).

Practical Tip: When examining a cross-border contract issue, always identify any choice-of-law or dispute resolution clauses. If absent, outline how default rules work (usually a two-step analysis: which forum, then which law). Use bullet lists to compare possible rules in different jurisdictions if needed.

Contract Law Basics (First-Year Core Topics)

Switching back to core contract law: a first-year contracts class typically covers these foundational elements. We review them briefly, then highlight how some vary in international contexts.

Formation of Contract: A valid contract requires at minimum: Offer, Acceptance, and Consideration (in common law systems) (www.wikilawschool.org) (www.law.cornell.edu).

Offer: A clear proposal by one party to enter a contract. For example, Alice offers to sell her painting to Bob for $500. As one text defines, an offer is “an expression of willingness to contract on certain terms, made with the intention that it shall become binding as soon as it is accepted” (www.wikilawschool.org). - Acceptance: A matching unconditional agreement to the offer’s terms. Acceptance can be by express statement or conduct. In contracts law, “Acceptance is a promise or act on the part of the offeree indicating willingness to be bound by the terms” (www.wikilawschool.org). If Bob says “I agree to buy the painting for $500,” that’s acceptance. - Consideration (in common law): Something of value exchanged by the parties. Consideration means a mutual exchange of obligations or promises (www.law.cornell.edu). In our example, Bob’s promise to pay $500 is consideration for Alice’s promise to transfer the painting. If Alice offered to give the painting for free, no consideration exists (unless we have a sealed contract or the doctrine of promissory estoppel in some cases).

Mutual Assent and Intent: Courts require “meeting of the minds”. Offers and acceptances must clearly match. If Bob tries to accept with a change (e.g. agreeing to pay $480 instead of $500), that is a counter-offer, not acceptance. This is the “mirror image” rule: acceptance must mirror the offer exactly.
Capacity and Legality: Parties must have the legal capacity to contract (e.g. not be minors or insane) and the contract must be for a legal purpose. An agreement to sell illegal drugs is void, for example. If a contract violates law (like price-fixing), it’s unenforceable.
Statute of Frauds: Certain contracts must be in writing to be enforceable: for example, contracts for the sale of land, contracts that cannot be completed within one year, or (varies by jurisdiction) sales of goods over a certain value. Oral contracts for these may still create binding obligations in some jurisdictions, but often only partially (e.g. restitution).
Terms and Interpretation: Contracts have express terms (agreed upon clauses) and implied terms (by law or custom). Courts interpret ambiguous contracts by looking at the plain language, context, and purpose; they strive to give effect to parties’ intent. Hierarchies (written > pre-printed > course of dealing) are used if different sources conflict.
Performance and Discharge: A contract is discharged when parties fulfill their duties (performance), or when events like mutual agreement, impossibility, frustration of purpose, or breach occur. For instance, if Alice delivers the painting and Bob pays $500, the contract is performed and ends. If Alice dies before delivering, this may excuse performance due to impossibility (subject to rules).
Breach and Remedies: If one party fails to perform, the other has remedies. The main remedy is expectation damages, intended “to put the non-breaching party in as good a position as if the contract had been fully performed” (www.law.cornell.edu). For example, if Alice breached by not delivering the painting, Bob could recover the difference between the $500 contract price and the cost of obtaining a similar painting (plus any incidental losses). Other remedies include:

Reliance damages (compensate expenses incurred in preparation), - Restitution (return any benefit conferred), - Specific performance (court orders actual performance, rare and used when damages are inadequate, like selling a unique artwork), - Rescission or injunction, etc.

Vitiating Factors: Certain issues can make a contract void or voidable. This includes:

Mistake: If both parties misunderstand a basic fact, the contract may be void (e.g. they contract for a non-existent item); unilateral mistake rarely voids unless other party knew. - Misrepresentation: False statements of fact by one party, if relied upon, can void the contract or allow rescission/damages. - Duress / Undue Influence: If A forces B into a contract (e.g. threats) or uses their power over B (doctor-patient, attorney-client), then B’s assent may be voided. - Unconscionability: If terms are extremely unfair and one party had no real choice, a court may refuse to enforce those terms.

Third-Party Rights: Generally, only parties to a contract can sue or be sued on it (privity of contract). However, there are exceptions: third-party beneficiaries (someone intended to benefit) can have rights, and tort law (negligence, etc.) may give independent remedies outside contract.

Practical Example of Formation: Alice (in UK) types an email to Bob (in Germany): “I offer to sell you my antique clock for €1000. Please reply if you accept.” Bob replies “I accept. Here is your €1000 via bank transfer.” The moment Bob sent his acceptance, a contract was formed. Alice's promise (to send the clock) and Bob’s payment obligation are consideration (mutual exchange). The contract is valid if neither is a minor, etc. If Bob had said “I accept for €900,” that would be a counter-offer, killing the original offer (www.wikilawschool.org) (www.wikilawschool.org).

International Contract Law (CISG and Related Regimes)

International commercial contracts often fall under specialized rules. If not explicitly excluded in the contract, trade in goods between parties from different countries is often governed by the UN Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG, 1980). The CISG is like a worldwide uniform sales code adopted by many countries (over 90 parties in 2025) to standardize cross-border sale of goods law.

When CISG Applies: It automatically applies when the parties have places of business in different CISG countries, unless they opt out (uncitral.un.org). For example, a German exporter and a Korean buyer would by default be subject to CISG rules rather than their national laws.
Key Differences: Some contract rules differ from common law. For instance, CISG has no requirement of "consideration" – the contract is binding once offer and acceptance exist, even if gratuitous promise is involved. It modifies rules on acceptance (Article 18), deposit, and remedies (including specific performance).
Actionable Advice: If studying contracts with an international focus, skim the CISG text or case commentary. Professors often mention it. Knowing that CISG is basically a treaty-based sales law can improve your answer when discussing international sales. Also mention other uniform rules like the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts, which influence deal-making even if non-binding by treaty.

Example: Company A in Spain offers to sell 100 chairs to Company B in Canada. Their contract (silent on law) is interpreted under the CISG if both Spain and Canada are CISG signatories. Under CISG, A’s offer may lapse when the shipment date passes without acceptance. If B’s acceptance letter arrives too late, under CISG Article 18, the acceptance would be invalid unless A tacitly extended the offer.

Intersection of Contract Law and International Law

International law and contract law intersect in several ways:

Contracts between States: When nations enter agreements (treaties) or contracts, domestic contract principles can inform their construction. For example, a bilateral investment treaty is a kind of contract granting investors rights.
Sovereign Immunity: A key international principle: a foreign state generally cannot be sued in domestic courts without its consent. This affects treaty enforcement and state contracts. Many countries have laws on sovereign immunity exceptions (e.g. waiver by signing a commercial contract).
Force Majeure / Impossibility: While a domestic contract might be discharged by impossibility, in international contracts force majeure clauses are common. These are often bespoken to cover war, embargoes (consider effects of COVID-19 on international supply chains). Another concept, “frustration of purpose”, has analogues globally.
Jurisdictional Issues: If an international supplier breaches, can you sue them abroad? States have different rules about enforcement. ‎Under the New York Convention, foreign arbitral awards are more easily enforced across borders than court judgments.
Public Policy: A domestic court may refuse to enforce a foreign contract or judgment if it contravenes the forum’s fundamental principles (public policy). This is a safety valve in conflict-of-law.

Practical Scenario: A U.S. tech firm licenses software to a company in Iran. The U.S. has sanctions law restricting technology exports. If Iranian side sues in Iranian court claiming breach (or vice versa), international law on sanctions (a form of public international obligation) might make the contract illegal in U.S. eyes, giving grounds for non-enforcement. Thus, contracting parties need to navigate both contract rules and international regulations (like sanctions, export controls).

Remedies and Enforcement in International Context

For a breach of an international or cross-border contract, the available remedies follow similar principles to domestic law (e.g., expectation damages (www.law.cornell.edu), reliance, etc.), but enforcement can be tricky:

Arbitral Awards: If the contract has an arbitration clause, and the parties arbitrate (often in a neutral country), the award can be enforced in 160+ countries under the New York Convention. This bypasses sovereign immunity issues because a state that ratified the Convention cannot refuse enforcement on many grounds. This is why international business contracts frequently specify arbitration in a neutral venue (e.g. “ICC arbitration in Paris”).
Court Judgments: Without arbitration, enforcing a court judgment from one country in another requires diagnosis under the latter country’s laws (or treaties). Many nations participate in the Hague Judgments Convention or have bilateral treaties, but reciprocal enforcement is less automatic than for arbitration.
Engineer disputes: Consider two construction firms from different countries. A common advice is to always include a dispute resolution clause. For example: “Any dispute arising out of this contract shall be resolved by arbitration under the rules of [Institute] with seat in [Neutral Country].” This way, the winner can enforce in any signatory state of the New York Convention.

Example Advice: Suppose you draft an international sales contract.

Include a governing law clause (which country’s substantive law applies) and an arbitration clause specifying seat and rules.
Specify the language of the contract and any required notices.
Consider a force majeure clause listing probable disruptions (natural disasters, war, trade embargo).
Address liability limits explicitly (common in international shipping contracts to limit damages per a protocol like the Hamburg Rules).

These precautions make international contracts more predictable and enforceable.

Actionable Advice for Students

Study Tips:

IRAC / CRAC: When analyzing issues (international law issues or contracts questions), use a structured approach: Issue, Rule, Application, Conclusion. For treaties and conventions, identify the correct treaty and article quickly.
Memorize High-Value Concepts: Sample important items: Article 38 ICJ sources; basic treaty law principles (Vienna Convention articles on pacta sunt servanda); elements of a contract (offer, acceptance, consideration) (www.wikilawschool.org) (www.wikilawschool.org); different remedies (expectation damages (www.law.cornell.edu), etc.). Also recall any iconic cases discussed (e.g. Carbolic Smoke Ball for unilateral offers as an example, or landmark ICJ cases if relevant).
Use Mnemonics: For first-year contracts, common lists (three K’s for validity: K (contract), K (consideration), K (no defects) – often taught as one for formation and one for contents). For international law, “Pacta sunt servanda” always.
Practice Past Exams: Most law school exams are essay based. Practice writing answers to hypotheticals involving cross-border issues. Identify if an international organization is involved, or if the scenario implicates treaties vs. one nation’s contract law.
Consult International Law Resources: The UN Treaty Collection (treaties.un.org) lists treaties and signatories. The ICJ website has cases. For contracts, the CISG website (cisg-online.org) has materials. Use these for deeper understanding.

Writing Style: On the blog, clarity and structure help SEO. Use headings (##) as done here. Use bullet or numbered lists for distinction and readability. Keep paragraphs short (3-5 sentences). Highlight key terms and use real-world examples.

Career Tips: If interested in international work, look for internships with organizations like the World Bank, UN agencies, or law firms with an international practice. Learn about international arbitration competitions and moot courts (e.g. Willem C. Vis International Commercial Arbitration Moot). These give practical experience with international contracts.

Example Action: If your exam question involves an international contract that says nothing about law or forum, first list the possible laws (e.g. CISG, English law, French law) depending on parties’ locations, then say how you would determine choice of law. Students who proactively say “I would check if the CISG applies, since both parties are from contracting states” score points.

Conclusion

International law and contract law each have vast content, but many core ideas overlap with first-year studies. Understanding how contracts work domestically (offer, acceptance, etc.) and then seeing how these concepts operate on the global stage (treaties as contracts between states, UN conventions, cross-border sales rules) provides a solid foundation. Always ground your answers in authoritative rules (with citations), and illustrate with examples. Use bullet points for clarity on lists (elements, sources, etc.), and keep paragraphs concise.

By mastering these principles, you’ll be ready for both your first-year contract exams and for more advanced study of international law. Staying organized, using examples, and linking theory to practice (e.g. treaty provisions, major cases) will both strengthen your understanding and make your exam or blog writing shine.

Key Takeaways:

International law governs states and global actors by treaties and custom (www.thelawstudies.com).
Contracts require offer, acceptance, consideration (www.wikilawschool.org) (www.law.cornell.edu).
Cross-border contracts often fall under uniform rules like the CISG, or must resolve choice-of-law issues.
Arbitration is the preferred dispute tool internationally (enforceable via the New York Convention).
Study tip: Use structured outlines and practice hypotheticals focusing on IRAC (Issue-Rule-Application-Conclusion).

Each time you encounter a new rule or treaty provision, think: How would this apply to a real contract or international dispute? That practical focus will make the subject stick and produce stronger answers.